CHAPTER 2

EUROPE

Europe merits recognitions as a world realm despite its small size relative to the rest of the Eurasian landmass.  Despite its size, Europe’s influence extends well beyond its geographic boundaries.  European influences, innovations empires and revolutions have transformed the world.  Despite internal wars, loss of colonial empires and the impact of external competition.  Europe has proved to contain the human and natural resources necessary to overcome internal and external obstacles.

  Globally, Europe’s relative location, at the heart of the land hemisphere, is one for maximum efficiency for contact with the rest of the world.  Almost nowhere is Europe far from the sea and it interfaces with the land as it does no where else on Earth.  Southern and Western Europe consist almost entirely of peninsulas and islands from Greece, Italy and the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal) to the British Isles, Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula (Norway and Sweden).  Southern Europe faces the Mediterranean and Western Europe virtually surrounds the North Sea as it look out over the Atlantic Ocean.  Europe has long been a place of contact between peoples and cultures, of circulation of goods and ideas.  The hundreds of miles of navigable waterways;  the easily traversed bays, straits and channels between numerous islands and peninsulas and the Mainland;  and the highly accessible Mediterranean, North and Baltic Seas all provided the routeways for these exchanges.  Later, even the oceans become avenues of long distance spatial interaction.

This historic advantage of moderate distances applies on the mainland as well.  Europe’s Alps may form a transcontinental divider, but what they separate still lies in close contact.  No place in Europe is very far from anyplace else on the continent, although nearby places are often sharply different from each other.  Short distances and large differences make for much interaction which is typical of European geography over the past 1000 years.

Of all of Europe’s advantages, none stand out as much as Europe’s mild and temperate climate.  At first glance it would appear to be a harsh and cold climate, due to its northerly position on the globe (most of the continental land mass lies north of New York City).  But winters in Madrid and Paris are less severe than those in New York and Boston.  The reasons for Europe’s mild climate are due to two factors;  prevailing westerly winds and the North Atlantic Drift ocean current.

Europe’s northerly location places it in the prevailing westerly wind belt.  This brings mild maritime air from the Atlantic modifying the winters and summers (Africa’s dry land mass lies just across the Mediterranean).  These prevailing winds also prevent bitterly cold arctic air from penetrating into the continent instead sweeping into Russia, which does experience bitterly cold winters.  Only occasionally due to changes in jet stream currents does arctic air penetrate all the way to the Mediterranean.  Instead of continental polar air masses, Europe is dominated by cool maritime air from the Atlantic.

Adding to the moderate climate, ocean temperatures are warmer than what would be expected at this location.  This is due to the North Atlantic Drift, an extension of the Gulf Stream, a warm water current that originates in the tropical Atlantic, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.  As the current moves past Cape Hatteras, it moves northeastward towards the British Isles, Scandinavia and even into the Arctic Ocean where the port of Murmansk (in Russia) remains open in the winter (albeit with ice breaker help) despite being located above the Arctic Circle.  This warm water (relatively speaking) current warms the air masses that invade Europe from the west and provides enough moisture and instability that gives much of Europe beneficial precipitation.

These climatic controls help to explain Europe’s climate, not too many temperature extremes and adequate precipitation.  European climate falls under two classifications;  Marine West Coast (Cfb) and Mediterranean (Csa).

Marine West Coast climate, as defined earlier in this text, is typically found along the west coasts of continents (typically between 40^o and 60^o latitude).  This climate covers much of Northwestern Europe including the British Isles, but excluding Scandinavia, Eastern Germany, Poland and Switzerland.

The other dominant climate in Europe is the Mediterranean (Csa, Csb).  This climate covers much of Southern Europe including most of the Iberian Peninsula, Southern France, Southern Italy and Greece.  It is characterized by hot, nearly rainless summers and mild rainy winters.  It is a pleasant climate and is conductive to the bountiful agriculture produce produced in this region.  Much of the world’s most renowned wines are produced in this region and in other regions of the world (i.e., California) where this climate occurs.

Europe is a world geographic realm of modest portions of the peninsular margin of Western Eurasia.  Europe’s relative location at the heart of the land hemisphere is one of maximum efficiency for contact with the rest of the world.  Much of Europe is in close contact with the sea with hundreds of miles of navigable waterways.  No place in Europe is very far from anyplace else on the continent.  Short distances and large differences make for much interaction.  Europe’s physical landscapes are varied and complex, but for the most part allow for interaction between different ethnic groups.  Its mild climate and the extension of the Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Drift) allow for the growth of most agricultural crops and for pursuit of most human activities.

 European Topography is dominated by the following physiographic regions.

  The Central Uplands contain the majority of coalfields and was the European center of the Industrial Revolution.  This region served as stimulus for Agrarian Revolution. The Western Uplands are geologically related to the Appalachian Mountains of North America separated by divergence of the North American and Eurasian Plates.  The North European Lowland extends from Southern Britain to Western Russia.  It is the most densely populated region of contact between Europeans and has been an invasion route over the years for many armies.  It has been subject to ancient glaciation, has good agricultural lands and are home to many navigable rivers: Weser, Germany; Elbe, Germany; Oder, Germany; Vistula, Poland.

European Highlands:

1. Alpine Mountains

Alps

Pyrenees

Apennines (Italy)

Dinaric Ranges (Balkans)

Carpathians

2. Western Uplands

Scandinavia

Scotland, Ireland

Brittany (Western France)

Portugal

Spain, Meseta

Norway, Sweden

1. Greece

  The Greek Empire was noted for accomplishments in political science, philosophy, architecture, sculpture, literature and education.  Greece’s success was due in part to its geography- the fragmentation of the islands allowed for local experimentation leading to a democratic government (emphasis on local government) and pioneers of the city-state and large urban areas.

2. Roman Empire

  The Roman Empire unified European continent as never before or since;  advances in land and sea communications, military organization, law and government.  Developed of an urban traditions as never before – improvements in infrastructure needed to support economic growth and development.  Development of a lingua franca (Latin) that unified the continent.  Has not been unified as it was under the Romans.  Legacy of ideas that influenced future civilizations.  Developed the geographic principle of areal functional specialization – bringing in diverse peoples and cultures within the Roman economic system – specialization of certain goods and services.

  Rome’s decline coincided with peoples migrating to (and invading from) central Europe and invasions from Africa and Southwest Asia which commenced the The Dark Ages; a long thousand year period of turmoil and poverty.

  The Dark Ages ended when Monarchies strengthened at the expense of feudal societies, marking the beginning of nation-states, discovery of new territories in the world, promotion of mercantilism-accumulation of precious metals through trade agreements and colonial conquests and the beginning of the Agricultural, Industrial and Political Revolutions.

  The Agrarian Revolution was made possible by a sustained population increase during the 17th and 18th centuries, improvements in organization of land ownership, expanded markets and for profit farming rather than substance agriculture.  New crops were introduced from Americas.  Agriculture changed the economic geography of Europe and lead to changes in spatial patterns.

  John Heinrich von Thumen produced the first geographic model in an attempt to explain these changes.  His isolated state laid the foundations of modern locational theory.  His model assumed uniform soil and climate, no disturbing physical features (i.e. river and mountains), a centrally located market (city), all farmers maximized profits, transport costs were proportional to distance, farm products raised in a concentric zone located around the central market.  The most perishable goods land or expensive agriculture land was closest to the central city.  His model consists of the following concentric zones:

Central City (the market for agricultural produce)

Zone of market gardens and feedlots

Zone of dairying

Fluid milk

Extensive mainly pasturage

Zone of livestock fattening

Intensive, cultivation of feed crops

Extensive, mainly pasturage

Zone of commercial grain farming

Zone of livestock ranching

Hinterland (non-agricultural)

  Models today include variations in physiography, climate soil and include improvements in agricultural technology.  The  models have expanded from microscale to macroscale.

  The Industrial Revolution commenced from a change from handicraft to mass production of products with the invention of steam engine.  Coal was used to smelt iron rather than wood or charcoal.  Britain benefited the most as the Industrial Revolution occurred when British influence extended worldwide and the most significant advances occurred in Britain. The British possessed skills necessary to make the machines that manufactured the products, controlled the flow of raw materials, and held a monopoly over products in demand.  Manufacturing regions occurred adjacent to large coalfields in the British midlands.  An east -west belt of manufacturing extended from northern France into Poland with heavy manufacturing centered on the Ruhr in western Germany.

  Other aspects of the Industrial Revolution included agglomerative (concentrating) forces and deglomerative (dispersal) forces.  These were a nodule region marked by a set of points where industrial activities occurred rather than regions.  Other general factors included:  raw material transport costs, cost of finished product and transport and special factors, perishability of goods, and differentiated between regional and local factors.

  The French Revolution led to revolutions all over the European continent and the rise of the Nation-State.  A Nation-State is a political unit comprising a clearly defined territory and inhabited a substantial population, sufficiently well organized to posses a certain measure of power, the people considering themselves to be a nation with certain emotional and other ties. A Nation-State is also expressed in its legal institution:  political system, ideological strength, government that seeks to support forces that unify a state over forces that will disunify it and European model-many states elsewhere in the world are multicultural states.

  The European realm has amassed fortunes at home and has established global influence due to its colonial exploitation abroad.  It has survived a ruinous 20th century in which it was nearly destroyed by two world wars and realignment into east and west blocs during the Cold War.  Although Europe constitutes a geographic realm, it exhibits little geographic homogeneity, physically or culturally.  Regionalism in Europe is heightened by disunifying forces – also known as devolution -as it attempts to unify the realm into a common economic sphere.

  Europe’s environments and resources present opportunities for human contact and interaction.  This spatial interaction is best explained around a set of geographic principles.

1. Complementary-one area has a surplus of a commodity in demand by another region.

2. Transferability-the ease with which a commodity may be transported from one region to another.

3. Intervening opportunity-potential trade between two places even if the first two conditions are met, will only develop in the absence of a closer intervening opportunity.

  European urbanization feature cities known as Primate City-A countries leading city that is disproportionately large and expressive of national capacity and feeling, i.e., a microcosm of the country at large. In European urbanized areas, land is expensive due to its scarcity, capital for private enterprise development has been sufficient, government-built housing is common, and prices for real estate and rent are government controlled.  Planning and Zoning Codes, the development of utilities are determined by Government policies that strongly control urban development, more densely populated central cities, urban multi-family dwellings preferred than single family homes, and greater reliance on public transportation.  Suburbanization in this area is on the increase.

  The end of the Cold War in Europe has led to a revival of nationalism and old hostilities especially in Eastern Europe.  Devolution is the process by which regions within a political state demand and gain political strength and even autonomy at the expense of the state.  It typically occurs in countries who have historically had problems from the beginning to forge a nation-state.  It is in countries patched together by external powers (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia).  Devolution in Europe is highlighted by Civil War in North Ireland, Scottish Nationalism, Basque & Catalonian separatism in Spain, Corsica from France, and Division from French and Flemish in Belgium.

  The other trend at work in Europe is that of unification towards a regional entity similar to the Roman Empire.  Voluntary associations of three or more countries for economic, cultural and/or political military unions are known as supranationalism with some loss of sovereignty.  Examples of supranationalistic organizations in Europe include:

The European Economic Community (EU)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

The European Economic Community today consists of:

France   Belgium

Germany The Netherlands

Italy   Luxembourg

United Kingdom Austria

Spain   Portugal

Sweden  Finland

Ireland   Denmark

Greece

  The trend in Europe is towards a single currency and reduced tariffs between member states.  Difficulty exists as some countries balk at giving up their currency and sovereignty.  More difficult questions concern admission of newly independent Eastern European countries whose economies and human rights records do not meet EU criteria. Even more difficult prospects appear as the EU expands into the Muslim near East,  Turkey’s admissions vigorously opposed by Greece.

  For over a half a century, Europe has been engaged in a historic pattern of unification.  Despite this, Europe has regional identities.  It has five regions:  Western Europe; the British Isles; Northern Europe; Southern (or Mediterranean) Europe; and Eastern Europe.

  This is a functional region defined by its productivity, circulation, and interaction economically. It consists of the countries of Germany, France, Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxembourg.

  Germany was divided from a communist east at the end of W.W.II, reuniting with East Germany in 1990, a formidable economic and social challenge.  West Germany was the most successful economy in Europe during the cold war. Germany benefits from central location, excellent transportation facilities, with Rotterdam in the Netherlands serving as Germany’s outport, and the nearby Ruhr as one of the world’s most productive industrial and manufacturing regions and little military expenditures. Reunification has been difficult, absorbing a polluted, inefficient infrastructure and millions of displaced East Germans (Ossies) resulting in higher taxes and tensions as not all workers have been absorbed into its economy. Politically, the country is divided into 16 states or Länders representing a traditional culture or political node, with six located in the former East Germany.  Brandenburg houses the former and soon-to-be national capital of Berlin and is the most populous state in Germany.

  Larger than Germany and less urbanized, with the most productive agricultural lands anywhere in Europe, it has no good natural harbors and Paris is the primate city.  Paris’ primacy is due to its site and situation. The original settlement occurred on an island in the Seine River at a defensible site at a river crossing.  Its situation stimulated growth and prosperity – a central location.  It is the regional center of agricultural products.  Canals extend navigable waterways.  Radial arrangement of rail roads lead from all corners of the country to Paris.

  The economic geography of the country is dominated by high technological manufacturing, transportation, telecommunications and nuclear power – 75 percent of France’s energy needs. Politically, the country is organized into 96 départments with representation in Paris, but power is concentrated in the capital-an example of a Unitary State.  22 subregions (regions) have greater autonomy in fields as taxation, borrowing and economic development.  Rhône-Alpes is a center of post industrial employment with Lyon, France's second largest city, functions as one of Europe’s “4 motors”-one of Europe's cententes of high-technological development.   The country wants to pursue superpower aspirations and  refuses to relinquish remnants of once large colonial holdings.  Immigration of Muslims from Algeria (a former French colony) and their rapid population increase, is leading to social tensions.

  This is among the most densely populated countries on Earth, 26 million in a region the size of Maine.  Much of the land is at or below sea level. The Netherlands is primarily an agricultural country, Belgium an industrial country. The Netherlands add to their living space by draining land from the sea (polders).  The Netherlands poulation centers on a conurbation (a coalescence of metropolitan areas) of Rotterdam, Amsterdam and the Hague.

  Switzerland has used its land locked location to its advantage to act as a middle man in regional trade, high elevations as security and neutrality in war, water resources to build hydroelectrical plants for specialized industries and productive alpine valleys.The countries aloofness (only European country not a member of the EU) is challenged by increasing tourism, cross traffic between western and Mediterranean, its preeminence as a financial center and its reputation for quality precision instruments.

  Austria is oriented to the East-the outpost of western culture during a time when much of Eastern Europe was under Muslim control (Ottoman Turks).  Today easternmost western outpost as Eastern Europe throws off communism, base to establish ties.Vienna is one of the most expressive primate cities.  Its economy and government have more in common with western Europe than Eastern.

[The text of the above was written by Scott Girhard, San Antonio College from his online course GEOG 1301 World Geography. Used with permission.]

  Officially United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland, and Wales.  It was conquered by Britain with Scotland incorporated in 1707. This is a distinct region because Britain’s evolution of a parliamentary government (the predecessor of democracy), offered protection from turbulent Europe,  forging a large colonial empire because of its strategic position and a strong military.  Location of coal allowed the region to become an industrial power and location allowed security from European wars up to World War II.  The region has declined due to punishing military, and economic commitments during World Wars I and II and loss of its colonial empire at the end of World War II and the rise of central Europe as economic engine, partly due to Marshall Plan.  Britain eventually joined European Union (EU) but still has disagreements towards EU’s integration and regulations.

  Once synonymous of the Industrial Revolution “the Midlands” consisting of Manchester, Sheffield and Leeds, now suffer from neglect, obsolescence and social problems.  Decline is marked by change to post-industrial high-technological economy  dominating the south of England.  The south of England is the most modern and economically diversified region with London as the center of economic and political activity.  Scotland is marked by strong cultural individualism and rising nationalism and has benefited from discovery of oil in the North Sea and from the post-industrial economy.  Wales – Language still survives after domination from British.  One time leader in coal production, but is in decline with switch to cleaner burning fossil fuels.  Also desires independence.  Northern Ireland is a difficult legacy of British colonialism and is two-thirds Protestant and one-third Catholic.  Despite some attempts to settle the conflict, British involvement continues and is resented.  Pullout would likely result in massive bloodshed.  Catholics wish union with Ireland while Protestants want ties with the United Kingdom.

  Ireland still suffers devastating effects from Irish potato famines of 1840’s, still not as many people present as were in the 1840’s.  There is some pickup in economic activity due to spill over from Southeastern England which is slowing the emigration begun in the 1840’s.

 [The text of the above was written by Scott Girhard, San Antonio College from his online course GEOG 1301 World Geography. Used with permission.]

  This is a region of  poorly developed soils, limited mineral resources, long distances, generally cold and stormy climates, population only 1/7 of Europe, and core areas lie in more temperate south.  Generally isolated from the rest of Europe allowing for protection from wars and unique cultural identity.  Sweden best agriculturally and Industrial country in region has served as an exporter of raw materials, but is also involved with production of industrial products consumed domestically.  Manufacturing is based on dozens of small and medium-sized towns specializing in particular goods.

  Economy is based on merchant marine and significant deposits of oil in its territorial waters.  Warm North Atlantic drift current makes life tolerable, but difficult terrain keeps many locales isolated.

  Denmark is the smallest country in Nordic Europe but second most populated.  It has comparatively good agricultural lands to support dairy products. Copenhagen, a center where goods are collected, stored and transshipped lies at a break-of-bulk point where ocean vessels are prevented from entering shallow Baltic Sea functions as an entrepôt whose transfer functions maintain the city’s position as the lower Baltic’s leading port.

  Finland is a land of evergreen forests and glacial lakes.  The economy is dominated by the export of wood and wood products.  It is also a diversified economy in which the manufacture of machinery and growing of staple crops.  Finland has relied economically on Russia in exchange for “neutrality” but now has joined the EU.

[The text of the above was written by Scott Girhard, San Antonio College from his online course GEOG 1301 World Geography. Used with permission.]  

  Generally distant from Western Europe Core.  Cultural continuity unifies region dating back to Roman times.  Natural environments are dominated by Csa climate.  Not well endowed with mineral resources compared to Western Europe.  The region has been deforested and hydroelectric opportunities are limited by erratic precipitation.  Agricultural production dominates (wine in Spain, France and Italy).

Italy

  Italy is often described as two countries; a progressive north dominated by a post-industrial economy and a stagnant, economically depressed south, known locally as the Mezzogiorno.  Rome lies along the narrow transition zone which divides the two countries.  Much of the functional center of Italy centers on Milan, the largest city in the north.  Milan accounts for one-third of economic activity in the country which surpasses UK productivity.  The South suffers from economic disarray, corruption and state-run activities.  Northerners object to tax money subsidizing region and have threatened to secede country suffers from ineffective central government and weak currency.

  Spain is organized its political geographic into 17 subnational regions called autonomous communities (AC).  Its own parliaments and administration control planning, public works, cultural affairs, education and environmental policy.  Catatonia is another of the four motors of Europe with post-industrial activities focused on Barcelona.  It produces 25 percent of Spanish exports and nearly 40 percent of its industrial exports.  The Basque region is an area of ethnic nationalism and separatism having wrested considerable power from the central government.  Provinces to the south of Madrid do not share in the economic successes of the northeast which has weakened the social fabric of a country which has been one of Europe’s most successful democracies.

  Portugal has benefited from its inclusion into the EU community as a richer member and must provide assistance to poorer countries.  Farms are still small and inefficient.  Major urban areas are along the coast-Portugal must import half of its foods.

  Once a cradle of western civilization, modern Greece is a nation of over 10 million inhabitants centered on Athens with 40 percent of the country's population.  Greece serves as a juncture between Europe and the Muslim world.  Tensions remain high between Greece and Turkey, Macedonia and Albania in this pivotal area of the world.  An agrarian country, Greece is self-sufficient in staple foods and imports only livestock products.  Fruits such as grapes, olives, figs and citrus go to EU markets.

[The text of the above was written by Scott Girhard, San Antonio College from his online course GEOG 1301 World Geography. Used with permission.]

  This is the most complex, troublesome and changeable region of Europe.  This region is also known as a shatterbelt, a zone of chronic political splintering and fracturing.  Other areas of the world warrant this classification (S.E. Asia) Geographic terminology is replete with words that describe the breakup of established order.  (Balkanization is to break up into smaller and often hostile units and ethnic cleansing is the forcible ouster of entire populations from their homelands by stronger powers).  Balkan region was combined into a single country called Yugoslavia by the victorious W.W.I power.

  Invaded by Germany during W.W.II, this region emerged after W.W.II as a communist dictatorship independent of the Soviet Union, which established its dominance over most of Eastern Europe and forced communist governments on East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria.

  The collapse of Soviet Union impacted the geography of Eastern Europe in the following ways:  stability of Yugoslavia broke down as old ethnic rivalries broke out, Czechoslovakia broke up into two countries (Czech Republic and Slovakia), former republics of USSR have aspirations of joining the European Union and/or NATO to guarantee protection from Russia.

1. Territorially and demographically Europe’s largest region.

2. Adjoins three of the other four European regions.

3. Contains more countries than any other European region.

4. Ukraine is largest European country; Albania is the poorest-none of countries meet EU criteria for membership.

5. Reaches into a zone that Russia regards as their sphere of influence

6. Sizeable population of Russians are found in the five former republics now realigning themselves toward Europe.

1. Countries facing Baltic Sea: Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus and Russia exclave of Kaliningrad.

2. Landlocked Center: Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary

3. Countries facing Adriatic Sea: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia and Albania and Macedonia

4. Countries facing Black Sea: Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine

  Poland has been traditionally an agrarian country.  The industrial heartland is in the Sudeten Mountains of the south and in Silesia.  The country suffers from environmental degradation from the communists.  Agricultural crops include potatoes and rye-country has also suffered from collectivization of farms under the communists.  Urbanized areas are embracing market reforms, but rural areas are lagging behind.  A revived communist party come to power in 1995, making countries’ future prospects uncertain.  A nation-state with only a small number of minorities, predominately Roman Catholic with a unifying language.

  The Grand Duchy of Lithuania once dominated Eastern Europe from the Baltic Coast to Black Sea.  They were defeated by Russians as they expanded their pre-communist empire.  Independence has left the country with large economic problems, despite self-sufficiency in electric power.  The  Soviet Union was the primary source of raw materials and primary market but disruption of linkages has produced a severe economic set back.

  Latvia suffers similar problems as Lithuania.  In addition 1/3 of population of 2.5 million are Russians who are demanding Moscow guarantee their security.

Belarus is still strongly allied with Russia, has a limited resource base and oil pipelines supply country with its needs.

Czech Republic is the region’s most westernized country, cosmopolitan in character, outlook, development and linkages.  Prague is a major manufacturing center lying in the lowland of the Elbe River. Bohemia’s historic outlet to the North Sea and Germany city also lies at the heart of the country’s greatest concentration of wealth and productive capacity.  Czechs are leaders in technology and engineering skills.  Moravia includes part of Poland’s Silesia manufacturing region.  Region home to inefficient industrial based economy which is slowing down the country as a whole (Moravian Gate).  Most likely candidate to qualify for EU membership.

Slovakia was created from an amicable partitioning of Czechoslovakia.  Slovaks have not vigorously pursued economic reforms.  They have a large population of minorities (Hungarians) and are more closely tied to Russia.  Trade links to outside regions are poorly developed.

Hungary is remnant of an ancient empire (Austria-Hungary).  Hungarians are also found in Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Croatia and Serbia.  Hungarian support for these people is irredentism (unredeemed territory).  Hungarians are mainly of distant Asian origin (Magyars).  They are the regions only net food exporter.  A good industrial base has been mismanaged by the Communists.  It has a well educated work force

Yugoslavia has essentially been a "put-together " country by outside powers with continual meddling by external powers.  It was a multicultural state contained by force.  This region (also refered to as the Balkans) is known as a "shatterbelt" because of splintering centrifugal forces and is located between agressive geopolitical rivals.  This region is replete with geographic terminology that describes the stresses that plague this area such as balkanization (to break up into smaller hostile units) and ethnic cleansing (forcible ouster of a group of people for racial, ethnic and/or religious reasons).  The Balkans are a region where the religions of Roman Catholicism, Orthodox Chistianity and Islam intersect as well as the ethnic groups of the Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Montenegrins, Albanians and Macedonians which are in close proximity to Greeks and the Turks.

Yugoslavia was created by the victorious allies of World War I to unite several groups that spoke similar South Slavic languages.  The region was invaded by Germany during World War II and occupied pitting ethnic groups against each other as some supported the Nazis against the Serbs.  After World War II, the country became an independent communist republic (not aligned with the Soviet bloc) led by Tito who ruled until his death in 1980.  A militarily neutral country, Yugoslavia permitted more interaction with western countries than other Eastern European  communist countries.  The creation of a viable country proved difficult in the case of Bosnia-Herzegovina because "Bosnian " was never clearly defined as a nationality in old Yugoslavia- 40 percent are classified not as a nationality but as Muslims.  Bosnia's Serbs and Croats fought to unite this region with Serbia, forcibly expelling Muslims out of Bosnia.  In 1991, Slovenia, one of the more economically advanced republics of Yugoslavia, declared its independence and the Balkan peninsula plunged into war which eventually claimed over 200,000 lives.  Only a United States backed peace process (with U.S. troops stationed indefinately) holds the region together. There is concern that as in World War I, this region could drag Western Europe, Russia, the United States, Turkey, Greece and even the Muslim countries of the Middle East into war again.

[The text of the above was written by Scott Girhard, San Antonio College from his online course GEOG 1301 World Geography. Used with permission.]

1. Using the text and the online lecture, explain why Europe's climate is mild for its northerly latitude and the advantages compared to the rest of the world. What are the two climatic elements that influence Europe's climate?

2. Explain how Europe's location works to its advantage when compared to the rest of the world.

3. What are the two dominant climates of Europe and where are they located?  Briefly discuss the physiographic regions of Europe.  How does the lack of an East-West barrier affect European climate?

4.  Explain how Greek and Roman civilizations shaped the spatial geography of Europe.

5. Discuss how the Agrarian, Industrial and political revolutions changed Europe.

6. What are the components of Von Thunens "Isolated State" and is this model still relevant today?

7. Define supranationalism and devolution in Europe and explain how these political forces are at work in Europe today.

8. What are some of the features of European urbanized areas?  Why the reliance on public transportation and high-speed rail?

9. What are the "four motors of Europe" and how are  these post-industrial centers driving Europe's economy?

10.  How successful has reunification of East and West Germany been?

11. What is a shatterbelt and why is Eastern Europe considered one?

12. What is balkanization and why has war plagued the former Yugoslavia?

13. Click on the NATO link and discuss why Mandelbaum thinks that expansion of NATO is ill-founded.  Do you agree?  Why or why not?